Explore the significance of representing reality in adapting history.

Realism is a key factor for consideration when creating a media artefact, be in it terms of the artefacts relation to the real world, or to a previous product[s] (when creating an adaptation). Reality is often understood in terms of the ‘plausibility’ or ‘believability’ of the text, as audience immersion and ‘suspension of disbelief’ are considered by many to be important factors in creating an effective or meaningful and subsequently successful artefact. As Hall notes, “in general, audiences are thought to perceive media content as realistic if they judge it to be like real life in some meaningful way or if they respond to it as through it were real […],these perceptions are informed generally by attributes of the content, such as its style or apparent genre” (Hall 2018). Adaptation is defined by Linda Hutcheon as a “creative and interpretative act of appropriation/salvaging” (2006, p.35), in this sense, the creator has a level of freedom and creativity to “appropriate/salvage” their desired version of reality, leading to variation between media products and indeed different adaptations of the same/similar sources. Hutcheon also describes adaptation as “an acknowledged transposition of a recognisable other work” (Hutcheon 2006, p.35), it may be considered that what makes a work recognisable is its reality and the “acknowledged transposition” of this into the new text, often by re-imagining ongoing narratives/adapting stories in “recognisable” realities. In this sense, representations need not be of the real-world ‘reality’- of course this is impossible to achieve true reality in media/adaptation – but may also be representations of the internal reality of an existing genre, franchise or story-world. Although realism/recognisable representations of reality are often considered to be ways in which an audience can be made more likely to identify with and respond as desired to the artefact, this is not always the case; texts which attempt/claim to adapt historical events or texts/sources often encounter many such issues. In order to explore the effects of representing historical realism, one must first understand what is meant by history. It is broadly considered that history is not a series of facts, but rather a series of interpretations by historians; “a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the past” (Carr 2018, p.75). “History is not the past – it is the method we have evolved of organizing our ignorance of the past. It’s the record of what’s left on the record”, as such any adaptation fictionalizes this ‘fact’ and is “a kind of wobbling to the fabric of reality” (Mantel 2017).It is clear then that the very act of attempting to understand or portray history almost inevitably changes it in some way, as Strong notes, “history itself is fundamentally adaptive” (Strong 2019, p.182). Due to this, all media texts which “follow, intersect with, and sometimes deviate from the past” (Strong 2018, p.182) are adaptations, be it of previous media texts, historical artefacts or events themselves, and as such often encounter unique issues and complexities. This is evident particularly in adaptations/portrayals of well-known historical events, particularly the controversial and fascinating portrayals of Jackie Kennedy in the time surrounding her husband’s death, which have been portrayed many times over recent history.

Perhaps the most prevalent modern adaptation of this is Jackie (Dir. Pablo Larrain, 2016), a biopic of the titular First Lady. Receiving wide-spread acclaim, the film is believed by many to be “an alluring peek into a beloved American figure’s private world” (Rotten Tomatoes, Fandango, Retrieved 2020) , however, many others criticised it for inaccuracy. Whilst it may not always be considered such, biopics are indeed examples of adaptation, as they “signal a relationship with an informing source text or original” (Sanders 2005, p.26), and are “an acknowledged transposition of a recognisable other work” (Hutcheon 2006, p.35), although the “source text or original” “other works” are a real historical event[s]. As many members of the films audience were likely at least somewhat familiar with Jackie Kennedy (and indeed other characters featured on-screen), creating a sense of ‘reality’ or authenticity to the audience’s memory is key for creating audience immersion in the narrative and attachment to these characters. Ford (2007) describes immersive story worlds as having “a serial storytelling structure, multiple creative forces which author various parts of the story, a sense of long-term continuity, a deep character backlog, contemporary ties to the media property’s complex history, and a sense of permanence”, all of which – I believe – can be found in Jackie. Elliott (2004) notes that a “rhetoric of incarnation, materialization and realization permeates adaptation criticism throughout the twentieth century” (p.161) and Landy likewise characterises the ambition of the historical film as the “reanimation of the past” (p.1), all suggesting that a truly authentic and realistic portrayal of Jackie is key to the success of the biopic. It is notable that director Larrain said he thought of Jackie as “an American queen”; “the woman who captured my imagination” (Teodoro, 2016), this personal fascination undoubtedly led to his desire to portray her in a way which is authentic to his perception of her. Indeed, this pivotal moment features in the film itself, with Portman’s performance intercut with the original archive footage, creating a clear visual link between the two for his audience. Larrain told the New York Times that the actual White House tour footage was playing while they shot the scene (Murphy, 2016), in an attempt to maintain as much historical accuracy as possible and blur the boundary between historical archive footage and his adaptation. As such, it is evident Larrain’s production was heavily concerned with maintaining and asserting historical accuracy, to such an extent that the whole film is framed as an interview account with real-life reporter Theodore White, although he is only referred to as ‘The Journalist’ on-screen.  However, some critics argue that complete accuracy or authenticity to ‘reality’ is not beneficial when creating a successful adaptation. Theorists Cartmell and Whelehan note the bias towards the ‘original’ text in adaptation studies, and believe that using only the original source by which to evaluate adaptations “homogenises the identities and desires of both film and fiction consumers who experience narrative pleasure differently” (1999, p.17-18). This notion of homogeny is particularly significant in adapting history, as not only do all consumers vary in their consumption preferences, but indeed everyone experiences and responds differently to the ‘original’ source/true historical event. Particularly in the case of Jackie, as members of the films audience may have lived through the Kennedy administration, and therefore have pre-existing views/ memories of the characters/event. According to Cartmell and Whelehan, in this scenario, Larrain’s attempt to be overly authentic to the source may divide audiences as it focuses more on historical accuracy (which is not always viewed/remembered the same), rather than the desired response. As noted in Bustle (2016) “Of course, not every scene in Jackie is going to be totally accurate, but the film doesn’t pretend to be a documentary. All biopics deviate from history in some way or another, and since Kennedy passed away in 2004, there’s no way to fact check Jackie with the woman who inspired it. But it’s evident that the creative forces behind it did the extra legwork necessary to pay respects to history”, summarising the inherent difficulties of adapting history and historical figures. Overall, it seems that Larrain wished to humanise Jackie, and explore the complexity of her public and private lives, and perhaps seeking to find the ‘truth’ himself in doing so.

Another significant, though largely different, representation of Jackie Kennedy, is in Andy Warhol’s print series Nine Jackies (1964). Warhol’s fascination with celebrity undoubtedly drew him to the famed First Lady, and his prints provide an interesting adaptation of the common public perception of her. Made in the aftermath of JFK’s assassination, Warhol utilised his signature print style to replicate a series of photographs of the First Lady throughout the day of her husband’s death. Although this is a less common form of historical adaptation, it in undeniably relevant. Indeed leading theorist Linda Hutcheon defines adaptation as “a creative and interpretive act of appropriation/salvaging” and “an acknowledged transposition of a recognizable other work or works” (2006, p.35). These images are undoubtedly an act of “appropriation/salvaging” as he used images from newspapers/magazines, salvaging what may otherwise have gone to waste. Additionally, it can be considered that any act of representing history is one of “appropriation/salvaging” of the true historical event.  Although Warhol’s unique print style is widely recognisable, Jackie herself is the primary “recognisable” feature of these works. Director of the Blain Di Donna gallery, which houses the works today, said of her “She was America’s royalty.” (2014), commenting of the extent of Jackie’s fame and popularity as she was perceived. By adapting a real event into a series of still images, Warhol undoubtedly interferes with the representation of the reality of the historical event, as Tutan notes “Historians are not the sole authorities in the writing of history” (2017, p.582). It is clear that artists such as Warhol also have the ability to [re]write history through their representations in adaptations. Warhol’s very process of selecting the still images which he desired to print is itself a process of rewriting history, as he is creating a unique narrative through the small number of images he selects, out of thousands which were available. As Leitch notes “A true story is both more and less the truth; less because it is only a selection of the truth, more because it has already been constructed as a story” (2007, p.290). In this sense, Warhol’s process of “selection” of images may be considered to decrease the truthfulness of his adaptation, however, it may also be considered more truthful as a narrative of sorts (which itself interfered with the truth) had already been created, by the media outlets which created/circulated the images he chose from. Hutcheon said “adapters are first interpreters, then creators” (2006, p.18), supporting Leitch’s view of adapters as creating or interpreting history. Creative processes such as Warhol’s are undoubtedly adaptive processes, both effecting and relying on audience’s memories and views to create meaning; “as audience members we need memory to experience difference as well as similarity” (Hutcheon 2006, p.22). This difference and similarity is evoked by contrasting images of Jackie before and after her husband’s death besides one another, Warhol elicits mixed responses, all of which informed by “memory”, or one’s personal perception of the truth: a “superficial woman” (Larrain 2016), or a portrayal of the deep complexity of her situation. Due to the less common mode of adaptation into physical art (rather than on screen/text), and the context of its creation, this adaptation may be considered to exemplify Jensen’s view that intermediality “refers to the interconnectedness of modern media of communication. As means of expression and exchange, different media refer to and depend on one another, both explicitly and implicitly; they interact as elements of various communicative strategies; and they are constituents of a wider social and cultural environment” (Jensen 2016). This piece, due to its contexts of creation and ongoing legacy into the modern day, is undoubtedly an example of the “interconnectedness of modern media” – indeed perhaps a commentary on the commodification of the Kennedy’s lives and deaths in the early era of modern mass media, and how this intermedial process influences perceptions of reality/history.

Tutan notes that “there are no possible options of fidelity in the case of history as adaptation” (2017, p.585). Clearly stating the belief that no [re-]presentation of a historical event can ever be ‘true’ or authentic to the original, as the very process of adapting makes this impossible: “every version of history should be regarded as rewriting, essentially an adaptation, since the historian adapts the material she or he has at hand into a pre-planned scheme to meet a certain end” (Tutan 2017, p.576). Whilst some adaptations may desire to attempt to achieve a high level of realism, others find success by focusing on representations outside of those intended to be completely accurate or truthful. Whilst both producers (Larrain, Warhol) may have aimed to portray Jackie Kennedy in a way which is authentic to their personal views of her, this is inevitably a subjective view, as the perceived truth is always subjective and changeable and even the most widely renowned figures have vastly varied perceptions and ‘realities’. Tutan concludes; “all historical representations are radically adaptive […] the ways in which these alternative representations are conceived and perceived tell us more about the present than about the past they refer to” (Tutan 2017, p.585) and “reasons for creating art are almost as important as the art itself” (Kinney 2013, p.9). This suggests that the very creation of both adaptations is the most important factor in our understanding of them, and the contemporary desire for a portrayal/representation of this historical person/event may inform the true meaning or ‘truth’ of the texts, moreso than any level of realism or historical [in]accuracy could, as they both create strong meaning, albeit in different ways.

Bibliography:
Carr, E.H. (1961) What is History? 2018 ed. London, Routledge.

Cartmell, D., Whelehan, I. (1999) Adaptations: From Text to Screen, Screen to Text. London; New York: Routledge.
Elliot, K. (2004) Literary Film Adaptation and the Form/Content Dilemma. Nebraska: Nebraska University Press

Ford, S. (2007) Immersive Story Worlds. Available at: http://henryjenkins.org/blog/2007/05/immersive_story_worlds.html  Accessed on: 19/5/2022

Hall, A. (2018) Perceived Realism. Oxford Bibliographies. Available at: https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756841/obo-9780199756841-0046.xml#:~:text=Perceived%20realism%20has%20been%20conceptualized,as%20though%20it%20were%20real. Acessed on: 6/5/2022

Hutcheon, L. (2006) A Theory of Adaptation. London: Routledge

Jackie(2016) Dir. Pablo Larrin. USA: Fox Searchlight Pictures

Jackie. (2016) Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango. Retrieved July 2020. Available at: https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/jackie_2016 Accessed 17/5/2022

Jensen, K. B. (2016) Intermediality. Wiley Online Library. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781118766804.wbiect170 Accessed on: 21/5/2022

Kinney, M. (2013) Preface to A Theory of Adaptation by Linda Hutcheon. Canada: Mount Allison University.

Leitch, T. (2007) Film Adaptation and Its Discontents: From Gone with the Wind to The Passion of the Christ. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

Mantel, H. (2020) ‘Adaptation’ The Reith Lectures’. BBC radio 4. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08x9947 Accessed on: 11/5/2022

Murphy, M. (2016) Pablo Larrain Narratives a Scene From Jackie. New York Times. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/01/movies/pablo-larrain-narrates-a-scene-from-jackie-with-natalie-portman.html  Accessed on: 17/5/2022

Sanders, J. (2006) Adaptation and Appropriation. London; Routledge.

Sooje, A. (2014) Jackie Kennedy: Andy Warhol’s Pop Saint. BBC Culture. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20140418-jackie-warhols-pop-saint#:~:text=%E2%80%9CBy%20cropping%20Jackie's%20face%20and,that%20of%20the%20entire%20country.%E2%80%9D Accessed on: 19/5/2022

Strong, J. (2018) Straight to the Source? Where Adaptations, Artworks, Historical Films, and Novels Connect. Adaptation, Vol. 12 Issue 2. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/adaptation/article/12/2/165/5536998?login=true Accessed on: 11/5/2022

Teodoro, J. (2016) ‘The State That I Am In’ Film Comment. Available at: https://www.filmcomment.com/article/pablo-larrain-jackie-neruda-interview/  Accessed on: 17/5/2022

Tutan, E. (2017) Adaptation and History. Oxford; Oxford Handbooks

Warhol, A. (1964) Nine Jackies. [acrylic, oil, and screenprint on linen] New York: Whitney Museum of American Art

Young, S. (2016) ‘Jackie’ Takes a Few Liberties With History. Bustle. Available at: https://www.bustle.com/articles/198387-how-accurate-is-jackie-natalie-portman-steps-into-the-shoes-of-an-american-icon Accessed on: 17/5/2022