Digital Sculpture
WEEK 1
Anatomy – Proportions/skull
The Skull
The Cranium of the skull Is like an egg, it Tapers towards the front.
The widest part is the posterior third
Midline earhole
Zygomatic Arch (cheekbone) widest point of the face
Top edge of zygomatic arch corner sunglasses on face. A lateral (furthest from the medial region) plane and an anterior (nearer the front) plane
Looks like sunglasses facing slightly down.
The orbit is rectangular with soft edges
From profile the orbit has a notch
Top of the orbits have prominences supraciliary arches masculine trait boney cashew nuts. Surpacilliary means above the hairs (above the eyebrows)
Glabella in between the supraciliary arches.
Supraciliary arches create a transition of planes from the frontal bone to the glabella (smooth part of the forehead between the eyes) to the nose
Frontal bone more of a slope more masculine.
Infraorbital is an anatomical term which means, literally, inferior to (below or beneath) the eye socket (orbit).
Nasal aperture determines width of nose
Malar region (cheek)
Maxilla upper palate and upper teeth
Mandible is the jaw
Descending angle of jaw is called the Ramus
Mental eminence (chin) Mental in this sense derives from Latin mentum (chin), not mens (mind), source of the more common meaning of mental.
A Masculine feature if pronounced
Skeletal muscles of mastication (chewing) attach to the mandible.
The Masseter comes off the angle of the jaw and inserts to the under edge of the zygomatic arch.
Also, the Temporalis muscle comes down from the temple under the zygomatic arch and attaches to the coronoid process.
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Drawing A Human Head
Drawing A Human Head
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The Skull is joined with fusions called sutures.
The front of the egg is the Frontal Prominence of the frontal bone,
the back has opposing external Occipital protuberance where the neck muscles join,
the nuchal ligament and also the trapezius, attach to it.
The Earhole is called the external auditory meatus.
The construction line runs from the external occipital protuberance through the external auditory meatus along the top of the zygomatic arch to the bottom of the orbit.
Cheeks malar eminence.
Then there is a cavity front of the sunglasses, ages the face. Depending how much fat is there.
Orbits are largely rectangular. Spiral in on themselves.
The superior and inferior borders are very important,
the gestures define the folds of the eyelids and infraorbital folds.
The Bottom of the Cheekbone defines the bottom of the nose.
Temporal fossa, the fossa is where the temporalis attaches.
The Mastoid process,is a bony projection on the temporal bone, located behind your ears on each side of your skull.
Nuchal line is where the nuchal ligament attaches across the occipital protuberance.
Temporomandibular joints are the two joints connecting the jaw bone to the skull where the mandible articulates
The angle of the jaw flares out at the base of the Ramus.
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Skull Features classwork
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Anatomical Directional Terminology
Anterior (Front) – This describes the front or direction toward the front of the body. The toes are anterior to the foot.
Posterior (Behind / Dorsal) – This describes the back or direction toward the back of the body. The popliteus is posterior to the patella.
Superior (Above/Top View) – This describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper. The orbits are superior to the oris.
Inferior ( Below/Under) – This describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper;
near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column). The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.
Lateral (Sideways) – This describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits.
Medial (Centre Point) – This describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. The hallux is the medial toe.
Proximal (Arm/Leg Length closer) – This describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
Distal (Arm/Leg Length Away) – This describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body.
Superficial (Closer to the Surface) – This describes a position closer to the surface of the body. The skin is superficial to the bones.
Deep (Further from the Surface) – This describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The brain is deep to the skull.
Supine (Lie looking UP) – This describes Lying face up.
Prone (Lie looking Down) – This describes Lying face down.
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WEEK 2
Features: Nose
The Nose
The Nose is strongly defined by the cartilage.
There are 3 pieces of cartilage; alar cartilage, lateral cartilage, and septum cartilage.
Check for the point of transition at the end of the nasal bone into cartilage, especially in profile view.
Septum cartilage comes down from the nasal bone.
Collumella joins the nasal spine.
Lateral cartilage is the side of the nose.
The alar cartilage is on either side and creates the ball of the nose.
The alar cartilage creates the main shape of the nose.
The profile view is the easiest way to assess a nose as the Front view makes it hard to tell, foreshortened.
The Wing of nostril is not cartilage, it is fibrous fat (alar fat). Same as in the heel of your foot.
It is fat but fibrous so if you went on a diet you wouldn’t lose weight from your nostril!
(Alar comes from the Latin ala meaning ‘wing’)
The Nose
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The Nasal Aperture
The Nasal Aperture is the pear-shaped inlet of the nose which is formed by the nasal bones and the maxillary bones. 
The Nasal Bones
Nasal Bones are 2 small oblong bones that vary in size in individuals these bones define the shape of the nose
Anterior Nasal spine
Anterior Nasal Spine is a sharp bony process of the maxilla at the lower margin of the nasal aperture.
It affects the Columella-labial Angle (it does not affect the size of the nose)
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NoseLabelling Classwork
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Drawing a Nose
Drawing a Nose
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ZBrush Nosing Around
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Assignment:
3 Noses
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WEEK 3
Features: Mouth
The Mouth
The mouth is cylindrical.
The lips are not flat on the face, the lips curve around, given their form by the teeth.
Think of the bite mark on an apple. Your teeth are not straight but curved.
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The Teeth
The upper incisors are ¼ bigger than the lower incisors.
The canine teeth end up being offset by half a tooth. This continues into the molars.
When smiling etc the mouth naturally usually opens to the width of the canines.
So working on the molars is usually only necessary if the mouth is to be opened wide
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Lips
The lips are a horizontal pair of soft appendages attached to the jaws and are the most visible part of the human mouth.
The top lip has three forms and the bottom lip has two.
The rounded form in the middle of the top lip (called the tubercle) is shaped like a heart and wedges between the two forms of the bottom lip.
Depressor labii inferioris
(aka Pillars of the Lower Lip)
The centre of the lower lip region is called the pillars of the mouth because it has two pillars that angle inward at the top.
The muscle is called the Depressor labii inferioris.
Pushes the chin and lower lip upward.
Orbicularis Oris-
The Muscle that ‘orbits’ the mouth cavity. It is complex as it has other muscles attached to it.
Buccinator-
The flat thin muscle of the cheek, which joins at the corner of the mouth and pulls the mouth.
It helps with chewing, whistling and smiling.
The Nasolabial fold (aka “smile lines“)
The two skin folds that run from each side of the nose to the corners of the mouth. They are defined by facial structures that support the buccal fat pads.
They separate the cheeks from the upper lip.
The term derives from the Latin word nasus for “nose” and labium for “lip”.
There is a triangular transition spot between the Orbicularis Oris coloured in purple and the Nasolabial Fold in green below.
Below is an image showing the following:
Vermillion border of the inferior labia (Orange Line)
Pillars of the mouth (Depressor labii inferioris) (Light Purple)
Mentolabial sulcus. (Dark Purple)
Mentolabial crease (Dotted Orange/Red Line)
Mental protuberance(Green)
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Marionette Lines (aka Oral Commissures)
This is the corner of the mouth, where the vermillion border of the superior labium (upper lip) meets that of the inferior labium (lower lip).
The commissure is important in facial appearance including smiling. 
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Drawing a Mouth
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Mouth Labelling Classwork
Mouth Labeling.
Assignment: Mouth-Making
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WEEK 4
Features: Ear
THE EAR
The Ear is an organ of hearing and equilibrium that detects and analyzes sound by transduction ( this is the act of converting sound waves to electrochemical impulses) which is then translated and sent to the brain, and also to help maintain a sense of balance (stability or perhaps equilibrium).
The Ear is broken into 3 major parts,
– The Inner Ear, Middle Ear, and The Outer ear,
The Outer Ear also known as the External Ear consists of the visible portion called the Auricle, or Pinna, which protrudes from the side of the head. The Ear doesn’t sit straight and flat on the side of the ear, it sits at an angle and protrudes outward like a trumpet, looking like a funnel sucking in all sound waves in the surrounding areas.
Our Study here is focused mainly on the External Ear, and how to sculpt it for realism.
The pinna, which is the visible portion of the external ear;
It is composed of a thin plate of yellow elastic cartilage covered by tight-fitting skin.
The external ear cartilage is moulded into shape and has well-defined hollows, furrows, and ridges that form an irregular shallow funnel.
The deepest depression in the pinna called the concha, leads to the external auditory meatus (earhole).
The one portion of the pinna that has no cartilage is the lobule (lobe) —the fleshy lower part of the ear.
The ear has several small basic muscles that connect it to the skull and scalp. Though they are generally nonfunctional in human beings when it comes to movement, they are capable of limited movement in some people.
When looking from the back it is possible to see how the ear funnels sound like a cone into the External auditory meatus (ear hole)
There are also diferent ear shapes; some are Attached, some are Free-Hanging lobes, and others are damaged like the Cauliflower Ear. 
The Cauliflower Ear
Cauliflower ear is a condition that occurs when the external portion of the ear suffers a blow. Fluid collects under the perichondrium. (the connective tissue that surrounds cartilage and helps with growth and repair). This separates the cartilage from the perichondrium that supplies its nutrients, causing it to die and resulting in the formation of fibrous tissue in the overlying skin. As a result, the outer ear becomes permanently swollen and deformed, resembling a cauliflower. 
Aircraft detection before radar, 1917-1940
Acoustic location was used from mid-WW1 to the early years of WW2 for the passive detection of aircraft by picking up the noise of the engines.
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Class Assignment
Labelling the Ear
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Features: Eye – Part 1
The visible eyeball consists of the pupil, iris, cornea and sclera (white of the eye).
For clarity, when surrounding muscles crunch the skin into wrinkles, the tarsal plates are where the wrinkles stop.
The tarsal plate follows the eyeball until it gets to the canthal tendon.
The tendons are holding the tarsal plates in position.
The lower bit is a tarsal plate which rolls up under the skin.
If they’re the same it’s a neutral tilt. And if your lateral canthus is lower than your medial canthus you have negative canthal tilt.
The male medial canthus is about 2 mm lower than the lateral canthus, which is a positive canthal tilt.
and the lateral third on the lower lid.
Notice the form of the lids when focusing using binocular vision, they have the corneas offset and therefore the upper lid shape is offset.
The drainage system of the eyes.
This is important to indicate as it shows where and how the angle changes from the upper tarsal plate hugging the eyeball, to becoming a tendon and leaving the eyeball (shown below).
The tarsal plate in its flat state has a defined edge, whereas the canthus is a tube-like bulge.
The Caruncula
The Caruncula is the small, pink, globular nodule at the inner corner (the medial canthus) of the eye.
It is made of skin covering sebaceous and sweat glands.
The Conjunctiva
The Conjunctiva is the clear, thin membrane that covers part of the front surface of the eye and the inner surface of the eyelids. Right next to it is a small fold of bulbar conjunctiva on the medial canthus of the eye, which is called the Plica Semilunaris.
The Orbicularis Oculi
The Orbicularis Oculi is the muscle found around the eye, located in the eyelids.
It is responsible for closing the eyelid and blinking. It allows for blinking and squinting.
Each time the eyelids are closed through the action of the orbicularis, the medial palpebral ligament is tightened, the wall of the lacrimal sac is drawn lateralward and forward, so that a vacuum is made in it and the tears are sucked along the lacrimal canals into it.
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WEEK 6
Features: Eye And Maya – Part 2
Technically, the eye ball is not spherical, its width is wider than its depth.
the cornea is made of the same stuff as the sclera.
The cornea is clear, whilst the sclera is an opaque white.
The Iris is behind the transition area, and begins beneath the sclera and emerges as it moves towards the pupil.
The iris slides underneath and it creates a blurred area. The veins are in a 3d dimensional space.
The veins come to the surface and dive back in so they have a sense of depth. Notice how smooth the reflection is on the cornea.
The reflections on the cornea are smooth a clear. The reflection on the sclera is bumpy and distorted, demonstrating a difference in surface texture.
They are called the rectus muscles.
There are 2 more muscles that pull on the eye called the Trochlea.
They come around at an angle acting like a pulley (the trochlea) grabbing hold of the eye, to twist the eye on the z-axis.
The trochlea of the superior oblique is a pulley-like structure in the eye.
The tendon of the superior oblique muscle passes through it.
Situated on the superior nasal aspect of the frontal bone, it is the only cartilage found in the normal orbit.
They stabilise the eye when the head tips to the side.
When looking to the left it pushes out the opposing side.
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WEEK 7
Villain: Comparative Anatomy
This week we studied how the animal skeletal structures and musculature are similar to the human anatomy.
An average human only has a bite force maxing out below 200 psi, while the Chimpanzee has a bite force of 1300 psi. Their structural anatomy is created in a way that enables them to apply such pressure.
Gorilla 
Gorillas grow a bony crest to help with the temporal muscle, and the ramus is large to support the masseter. The Gorilla has a bite force of about 1200 psi.
Horse 
Herbivores chew the cud, hence they do a lot of chewing and use the masseter to do it. A large proportion of a horse’s head is masseter. The Horse has a bite force of 500 psi.
Lion
The Lion has a bite force of 650 psi. Notice how the eye orbit has a gap at its lateral border. Carnivores often have ligaments there instead of fragile bones. This is because the bone may fracture under the pressure of the powerful mastication muscles. Also notice the size of the coronoid process.
Hyena 
The Hyena also has a space at the eye socket like the Lion. But they have a bite force of 1000 psi.
Hippopotamus 
The Hippopotamus has a very small temporalis and almost no temporal fossa. Its bite is all done by the enormous masseter. The Hippopotamus has a bite force of about 1820 psi. The Hippo is the land animal with the highest bite force.
Crocodile 
The Crocodile has a different system when it comes to biting. The force applied is not done by the masseter or temporal muscles, it’s bite strength is due to the pterygoid muscles. We humans have these muscles also, however, they are far less developed. The Crocodile has a bite force varying between 3700 psi for the saltwater crocodile and 4000 – 5000 psi for the Nile Crocodile.
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WEEK 8
Villain: Fat
There are 2 main types of fat, which are:
– Subcutaneous Fat
– Structural Fat
Subcutaneous Fat
Subcutaneous means under the skin. And under the skin is where you find the superficial fascia.
Superficial fascia is a general coating of the body beneath the skin, made up of loose areolar tissue with varying amounts of fat. It is the layer that primarily determines the shape of the body. In addition to its subcutaneous presence, the superficial fascia surrounds organs, glands and neurovascular bundles.
Subcutaneous fat is all over the body, and as an individual gains weight, this subcutaneous fat gathers in some places more than others. It does not collect uniformly as weight is gained, and it forms little compartments within this superficial layer’s observable collection points.
Structural Fat
Are also fat which is usually deeper, and a lot closer to the skull. They are either for helping the bones slide around or a structure, to push muscles out. For example, the Orbital fat. When an individual is younger, all the fat pads are smoothed together, they generate plane changes that gradually become more visible. As an individual starts to age, they separate, sometimes it reduces and sags as gravity pulls down on them.
Orbital Fat Pads
The Orbital fat is the fat around the eye socket, it is held back by the ‘orbital septum’ which holds back the fat. As an individual ages, the elasticity of the orbital septum weakens and gravity has a greater influence on it, pulling it down.
There are fat pads whose role is to protect and package the eye. There are two fat pads up top and three on the bottom of the eye socket. When a person is young, thse fat pads blend into one and softly protect the eye. But as ageing commences, the orbital septum relaxes and the fat herniates through it. It is sometimes possible to visibly define the three separate pads on the face.
The nasal fat pad is on the medial border. It is lashed down by the medial canthal tendon. This can have an effect where it bulges out either side of the canthal tendon
ROOF Fat – Retro-obricularis Oculi Fat
SOOF Fat – Sub-obricularis Oculi Fat
Ageing affects the elasticity of the fat pad. The fat sinks downward as a person gets older, and a wrinkle can form along with a visible bulge.
Buccal Fat
The Buccal fat pad is a deep fat pad located on either side of the face between the buccinator muscle and several more superficial muscles (including the masseter, the zygomaticus major, and the zygomaticus minor). It can give a person a puffy cheek like the chipmunk cheeks. Once the Buccal fat fades or is surgically removed, it does not return.
The Malar fat is a distinctive fat pad that is bordered by the infraorbital furrow (bordered by the Tear Trough) and nasolabial furrow (bordered by the Nasolabial Fold) as shown below.
Sub-mental fat
It is bound by ligaments below the chin, so it does not go right down the neck toward the throat.
The Jowl fat is bordered by the masseter and the muzzle (the muscles that control the mouth), in the buccal region, but it is not a structural fat. It is a subcutaneous fat, and the zone that it occurs in is due to the loss of elasticity in an area that has lots of movement and contortion.
The Jowl fat is in a particular place, the middle third as shown below. It does not happen in the surrounding areas, the chin or the upper jaw.
There is also a mandibular ligament that divides the jowl fat. The superior jowl fat is by the node and hangs down from there. The Inferior jowl sags down to the mandibular ligament, whilst the submandibular jowl sags below the mandibular ligament.
UV Skin Material created in ZBrush
End Result
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WEEK 9
Villain: Neck
The Neck
The 7th Cervical vertebrae is a useful landmark on the human body, it is located on the upper back in between the trapezius muscle. This is where the neck meets the shoulders.
When the head is bent forward, you can see a prominent outward protrusion of the 7th vertebrae.
The clavicle or also known as the collarbone is a long bone that serves as a strut between the shoulder blade and the sternum or breastbone. There are two clavicles, one on the left and one on the right. The clavicle is the only long bone in the body that lies horizontally. Together with the shoulder blade, it makes up the shoulder girdle.
Sternocleidomastoid Muscle
The primary actions of the muscle are rotation of the head to the opposite side and flexion of the neck. It is given the name sternocleidomastoid because it originates at the manubrium of the sternum (sterno-) and the clavicle (cleido-), and has an insertion at the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull.
This feature is visible whether muscle, skinny, or fat.
The platysma is a superficial muscle that overlaps the sternocleidomastoid. It is a broad sheet arising from the fascia covering the upper parts of the pectoralis major and deltoid; its fibers cross the clavicle, and proceed obliquely upward and medially along the side of the neck.
Traps are diamond-shaped muscles that are on the back. The 7th crevicular vertebrae is visible between them, and when developed are visible from the front.
The Adam’s Apple is not usually visible in women. Men have larger voice boxes and have a more prominent Larynx. This is the reason why men speak in deeper tones than women.
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WEEK 10
Villain: Maya pipeline – Displacement Mapping
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WEEK 11
Villain: Demon-Vampire
Completed
Villain:
Demon-Vampire
